. Air pollution from ships The adoption of a new Annex VI to MARPOL 73/78 in 1997 introduced international regulations on air pollution from ships for the first time. Now, in response to a request made in the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change adopted in late 1997, IMO has embarked on a study to substantiate more fully shipping's contribution to the global emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases. The study will draw on existing research and is to include investigation into ways of minimising the adverse effects of climate change, the consequences for international trade, and social, environmental and economic impacts. Meanwhile discussion on sulphur oxide (SOx) emissions is on hold, in anticipation that the North Sea states will resubmit their proposal for the North Sea to be designated an Emission Control Area (ECA). ICS continues to oppose the adoption of ECAs, advocating instead the worldwide use of low sulphur fuels. Unfortunately, there has been a discouraging lack of leadership from governments on this matter and, because oil suppliers are unlikely to respond voluntarily, the absence of action will surely lead to demands for the designation of more ECAs. So far Norway and Sweden are the only countries to have ratified MARPOL Annex VI, although the European Union has recommended that all member states should follow suit. Implementation of the new rules will however require ratification by at least three or four of the largest flag states to reach the necessary tonnage level, and ICS believes timely ratification should be encouraged. In the meantime a number of countries are promoting emission reduction by methods such as discounting port tariffs for vessels burning low sulphur fuel, and this fragmented approach reinforces speculation that national rather than regional controls may be imposed if entry into force of MARPOL Annex VI is unduly delayed. ICS will continue to watch the situation closely. .